Michelle L. Kelley, Peggy A. Herzog-Simmer, and Marci A. Harris

Old Dominion University

In this study we examined the responses of 118 U.S. Navy deploying mothers on the Parenting Stress Index ( Abidin, 1990), the Maternal Separation Anxiety Scale ( Hock, McBride, & Gnezda, 1989), the Parenting Dimensions Inventory ( Power, 1991; Slater & Power, 1987), and on two subscales of the Family Environment Scale ( R. H. Moos & B. Moos, 1981). Parenting and family functioning were affected by point in the mothers' deployment cycle and marital status. Women anticipating a deployment reported significantly higher levels of parenting stress and more sensitivity to children than those who had recently returned from deployment. Single mothers reported more separation anxiety, less family cohesiveness, and less family organization than did married mothers. Results are discussed in terms of the additional stress accompanying the predeployment phase and the unique challenges faced by single parents, as well as the distinctive concerns of deploying mothers.

Job-related separation is a part of many occupations. Much of our knowledge of work-related separation comes from the literature on military-induced separation. Navy service provides a unique opportunity to examine the impact of separation because Navy families experience cycles of departureabsence-return throughout the course of military service.

Studies examining the effects of military-induced separation on deploying fathers and their families demonstrate that cognitive and behavioral changes accompany prolonged periods of separation. A cyclic pattern of depressive behavior has been demonstrated in Navy wives and children, with higher levels of depressive mood and behavior reported prior to and during the deployment period than at postdeployment (e.g., Beckman, Marsella, & Finney; 1979; Glisson, Melton, & Roggow, 1980; Kelley, in press; Nice, 1983). Some women reported increased anxiety, emotional withdrawal, and disruptions in parenting rules and expectations for children during the deployment period (e.g., Amen, Jellen, Merves, & Lee, 1988; Beckman et al., 1979; Jensen, Lewis, & Xenakis, 1986; Kelley, 1994).

Reintegration of an absent member back into the family is a concern as well. Deploying fathers report disrupted communication patterns, feeling "out of sync" with the rest of the family, missing developmental milestones in their children's lives (e.g., first words, birthdays), losing their authority within the family, and the challenge of maintaining strong parent-child attachment given frequent absences (e.g., Bey & Lange, 1974).

Although deployment is challenging for families, various coping strategies may mediate the stress associated with deployment. Androgynous sexrole orientation ( Patterson & McCubbin, 1984), perceived support from other wives with absent husbands ( Rosen & Moghadam, 1990), positive attitudes regarding the deployment ( Archer & Cauthorne, 1986), and appropriate mothering during this time (e.g., Robertson & Robertson, 1971) may serve to increase family satisfaction and lower levels of stress.

Although our understanding of military-induced separation is increasing with regard to traditional families in which the father is deployed, noticeably absent from the literature are references to mothers who experience separation from their families. Similar to the civilian workplace, there has been remarkable growth in the number of women in the military. These changes necessitate studies that examine the effects of military-induced separation on women and their families.

Deploying mothers are likely to experience many of the same concerns as deploying fathers. In an article that discussed the problems associated with frequent corporate travel, however, women reported their reliance on husbands to care for their children to be a central concern ( Berry, 1987). Job-related separations often occur when children are young and families have an increased need for time together ( Riggs, 1990). This is typically the period when responsibility for child care and child socialization falls mainly on mothers and when mothers are particularly concerned about attachment issues. These issues may make separation especially stressful for mothers. Moreover, maintaining regular routines with young children without assistance may be difficult for fathers or other caregivers.

Developmental psychology has documented the varying degrees of separation anxiety women experience from leaving their children in the care of others (e.g., Hock, McBride, et al., 1989). Although previous studies have

focused on women with nine-to-five schedules, few studies have examined the women facing prolonged periods of separation from their families. These women are more likely to experience considerable separation anxiety.

Bowen ( 1987 ) reported that single fathers in the Air Force adapted well to periodic separations. Nevertheless, single parents are especially important to consider, as they may face additional parenting challenges (e.g., Hetherington, M. Cox, & R. Cox, 1982; Wallerstein & Blakslee, 1989).

The purpose of the present study was to provide empirical data obtained from deploying mothers on the impact of long-term military-induced separations. Women were examined on multiple dimensions, including perceived parenting stress, maternal separation anxiety, parenting attitudes and behavior, and family cohesiveness and organization. Previous studies have documented that point in the deployment cycle affects reported levels of stress (e.g., Eastman, Archer, & Ball, 1990), psychological adjustment (e.g., Nice, 1983), and family functioning (e.g., Kelley, 1994). Thus, single and married mothers in two phases of deployment (predeployment or reunion) were sampled. This made it possible to examine the ways in which phase of deployment and marital status affected mothers' perceptions of parenting and family functioning. Single mothers anticipating deployment within the next 2 months were expected to report higher levels of parenting stress and separation anxiety and more disruptions in parenting attitudes and family functioning than either married mothers anticipating deployment or recently deployed mothers.

Participants were 118 Navy women assigned to one of three supply or repair ships of the U.S. Navy Atlantic Submarine Fleet based in Southeastern Virginia. They were divided into a predeployment group (n = 63), defined as facing a major deployment within the next 60 days, and a reunion group (n = 55), defined as having experienced a 7-month deployment within a 60-day period prior to completing the surveys. An attempt was made to examine an additional group of women who were assigned to ships that had neither returned from nor were scheduled to leave for deployment, but a group could not be found at the time of the surveys.

All participants were mothers whose children normally resided with them. Approximately one half of the women in each group (32 predeployment, 25 reunion) were married at the time of data collection.

Prior to scheduled data-collection visits, administrative office crew members generated a list of female personnel assigned to each of the supply or repair ships. Crew members contacted many of the participants individually and explained the general purpose of the study (i.e., to examine the effects

of shipboard assignment on female personnel). Announcements were also made on the public address system prior to and during the researchers' scheduled visits. Subjects were recruited by other participants as well.

The age of the participants ranged from 20 to 48 years (M = 27.9 years, SD = 5.4 years). Fifty-seven (48%) had completed high school, 55 (47%) reported attending one or more years of college, and 6 (5%) held bachelor's degrees. Sixty-six participants were White, 39 were African American, 6 were Hispanic American, and 7 represented other ethnic backgrounds.

Participants' time in the military ranged from 1 to 20 years (M = 7.3 years, SD = 4.5 years). Because no female officers with children were assigned to the ships surveyed, all participants represented enlisted ranks. The rank of the majority of participants was E-4 or E-5 (range = E-1 to E-8). The majority of participants (n = 84) reported no previous long-term separations, although 23 women had experienced from one to five previous deployments.

The sample appeared to be fairly representative of Navy women and Navy mothers in general. Based on two large-scale surveys and additional records, Thomas M. D. and P. J. Thomas ( 1991 ) estimated the number of enlisted Navy mothers under 25 years of age at 49.8% and of those from 26 to 35 years of age at 39.5%. This compared to 34.7% and 56.7% in our sample. M. D. Thomas and P. J. Thomas estimated the most common ranks for Navy mothers to be E-4 (23.2%) and E-5 (24.3%). This also was the case for our sample (E-4 = 27.1%, E-5 = 26.3%). Minority women comprised 44% of our sample, versus 38% in the Navy general population ( Department of the Navy, 1992). Eighty-two women (70%) had one child (M = 1.5, SD = .8). The mean age of the children was 6.1 years (SD = 8.7 years; the large standard deviation represents the fact that one participant had children who were considerably older than those of all other participants). In our sample, 59% of the respondents' children were 0 to 5 years of age and 29% were 6 to 12 years of age; Thomas M. D. and P. J. Thomas ( 1991 ) reported percentages of 49% and 36%, respectively.

Two of the measures asked participants to rate a particular child. On these two instruments, subjects with more than one child were asked to report on their youngest child.

Participants completed the following self-report instruments.

The PSI ( Abidin, 1990) is a 120-item measure that yields three major domains: Parent, Child, and an optional Life Stress subscale. Only the Parent and Child domains were examined in the present research. The Parent domain includes 7 subscales and the Child domain includes 6 subscales. Each item

of the 13 subscales is scored on a 5-point scale reflecting the degree to which the statement is true of the mother or her child. High scores in the Parent domain indicate that the parent perceives considerable stress in the parenting role. High scores in the Child domain reflect child characteristics that increase the difficulty associated with parenting. High scores are considered excessively high when they exceed the 75th percentile rank. For the Parent domain, high scores are above 153; for the Child domain, high scores are above 122. Reliability coefficients computed based on the responses of a sample of 2,633 were .90 for the Child domain and .93 for the Parent domain ( Abidin, 1990) and are similar to those in the present study (.90 and .92, respectively).

The MSAS ( Hock, McBride, et al., 1989), is a 35-item, three-factor, self-report inventory. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The scale is designed to measure maternal separation anxiety, which is defined as "an unpleasant emotional state reflecting a mother's apprehension about leaving her child" ( Hock, 1984 , p. 194). Factor-analytic procedures have revealed three subscales: Maternal Separation Anxiety, Perception of Separation Effects on the Child, and Employment-Related Separation Concerns ( Hock, McBride, et al., 1989). Cronbach's alphas in the present study (.90, .64, and .68 for the three subscales, respectively) were slightly lower than those reported by Hock, McBride, et al. ( 1989; αs = .90, .71, and .79, respectively).

Maternal Separation Anxiety subscale. This 21-item subscale reflects aspects of maternal anxiety and feelings of guilt resulting from or in anticipation of separation. Specifically measured are feelings of sadness and depression resulting from separation, apprehension that the caregiver may not adequately meet the physical and/or emotional needs of the child, and beliefs that the child is better off with the mother taking care of him or her (e.g., "Only a mother just naturally knows how to comfort a distressed child"). The summed score is divided by 3 to obtain a final score.

Perception of Separation Effects on the Childsubscale. This 7item subscale represents the mother's perceptions of her child's reactions to separation and the positive or negative effects on the child due to separation. An example from this scale is "My child will benefit from group experience since they will provide him/her with social experiences that he/she could not get at home." Higher scores reflect the mother's beliefs that her child will not benefit from separation effects.

Employment-Related Separation Concerns subscale. This 7-item subscale assesses a mother's attitude about balancing the maternal role and career investments that would be associated with separation (e.g., "I would resent my job if it meant I had to be away from my child"). High scores indicate concern about working outside the home. Acceptable levels of internal consistency and reliability over time have been reported, suggesting that mothers' attitudes and beliefs about separation are relatively stable over short periods of time ( Hock, Gnezda, & McBride, 1989).

The PDI ( Power, 1991; Slater & Power, 1987) is a self-administered instrument that assesses several dimensions of parenting. The following 5to 8-item subscales were examined in the present study: Nurturance (e.g., "My child and I have warm intimate moments together"), Sensitivity (e.g., "I encourage my child to express his/her opinions"), Restrictive Attitude (e.g., "I do not allow my child to get angry with me"), and Consistency (e.g., "My child convinces me to change my mind after I have refused a request"; items are reversed to assess consistency rather than inconsistency). The PDI has been validated in a number of ways by examining its correlations with parent and teacher ratings of child behavior problems (e.g., Slater & Power, 1987) and fathers' and close friends' ratings of the mothers' behaviors and attitudes (see Power, 1991; Slater & Power, 1987). Alphas in a recent study of low-income African-American mothers ( Kelley et al., 1992) ranged from .65 to .88, with a mean of .80. The alphas reported by Kelley and colleagues are slightly higher than the alphas obtained on the same measures in a recent large-sample study of predominantly White middle-class parents ( Longano, 1990; range = .40 to .89, M = .73).

Form F of the FES ( R. H. Moos & B. Moos, 1981) is a 90-item, true-false measure designed to assess structure, style, and functioning of the family as a system across 10 dimensions. Scores on two of the subscales (Cohesion and Organization) were examined in the present study. Cohesion reflects perceptions of the amount of commitment, assistance, and support that family members contribute to one another. Organization measures family members' perceptions of the extent to which organization and structure are involved in planning family activities and responsibilities. Acceptable levels of internal reliability (Cohesion = .78; Organization = .76) and test-retest reliabilities have been reported ( R. H. Moos & B. Moos, 1981).

Assessments for the predeployment group took place approximately 6 weeks prior to deployment. For the reunion subjects, data collection took place approximately 6 weeks after the subjects had returned to port. Due to scheduling conflicts, five participants completed the measures in their homes. All assessments were completed in approximately 1 to 1 ½ hr.

No significant differences were found between the predeployment and reunion groups on length of military service, age, education, or number of previous deployments. The reunion group, however, represented a slightly higher rank (generally E-5, whereas the predeployment group was generally E-4), t(117) = 3.0, p < .05. Children of mothers in the reunion group were older than those in the predeployment group (Ms = 8.8 years and 3.8 years), t(117) = 3.1, p < .05. Because the difference in rank between the two groups was small (approximately one half rank difference between the two groups) and did not appear to be a potential confound, a decision was made not to statistically control for the difference in subjects' rank. In the analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) that follow, children's age has been treated as a covariate. Presented in Table 1 are the means and standard deviations for

married and single mothers at predeployment and postdeployment. Correlations between the dependent measures are reported in Table 2. Small to moderate intercorrelations within the various instruments were observed, with one exception: Perceived parenting stress and child stress were highly correlated. For the most part, correlations between the various measures did not exist or were in the expected direction (i.e., parent stress was negatively related to parental nurturance and child stress was negatively related to parental consistency).

To examine the impact of deployment on the stress women perceived in the parenting role and the stress reflected by their children, two 2 × 2 (Condition: Predeployment vs. Reunion × Marital Status: Single vs. Married) ANCOVAs, with child age as a covariate, were performed on the Parent and Child PSI dimensions. For both analyses, the main effect of condition was significant, F(1, 113) = 5.0, p < .05, F(1, 114) = 6.5, p < .05, respectively. Women anticipating a deployment reported more parenting (M = 126.1) and child stress (M 102.1) than did subjects who had returned recently from deployment (Ms 114.9 and 94.6, respectively). Although women anticipating deployment reported significantly more parenting and child stress than did the reunion group, average scores for both groups fell within normal limits ( Abidin, 1990). For both analyses, the main effect of marital status and the interaction were not significant.

To examine the effects of deployment on anxiety associated with deployment, three 2 × 2 (Condition: Predeployment vs. Reunion × Marital Status: Single vs. Married) ANCOVAs, with child age as a covariate, were conducted on the three MSAS subscales (Maternal Separation Anxiety, Perception of Separation Effects on the Child, and Employment-Related Separation Concerns). The main effect on Maternal Separation Anxiety was significant, F(1, 117) = 8.3, p < .01. Single mothers reported higher concern over separation (M = 18.6) than did married mothers (M = 16.4). No other results were significant.

Four 2 × 2 (Condition: Predeployment vs. Reunion × Marital Status: Single vs. Married) ANCOVAs, with child age as a covariate, were conducted of the data for the four PDI subscales examined (Nurturance, Sensitivity, Restric

tiveness, and Consistency). Mothers who anticipated separation reported more sensitivity to their children (M = 23.4) than did the reunion subjects (M = 21.9), F(1, 112) = 5.6, p < .05. No other results were significant.

Two 2 × 2 (Condition: Predeployment vs. Reunion × Marital Status: Single vs. Married) ANCOVAs, with child age as a covariate, were conducted on the FES Cohesion and Organization subscales. A main effect of marital status was significant for both Cohesion and Organization, F(1, 113) = 4.4, p < .05, F(1, 117) = 7.1, p < .01, respectively. Married mothers reported more Cohesion (M = 7.6) and Organization (M = 6.6) than did single mothers (Ms = 6.9 and 5.7, respectively). No other main effects or interactions were significant.

Studies of deploying fathers and their families have indicated that numerous challenges are associated with long-term separations (e.g., Beckman et al., 1979). One of the limitations of previous research is that only traditional two-parent families have been examined. There is a pressing need for researchers to examine nontraditional families because their numbers have increased rapidly and are expected to grow in the future. The present research represented an attempt to examine single-and two-parent families in which mothers expected to be separated or had been separated from their families.

Descriptive studies of military families suggest that, during reunion, responsibilities are reassigned, making this a readjustment period for families (e.g., Amen et al., 1988). Empirical studies have demonstrated, however, that the predeployment period may be the most difficult time for families (e.g., Beckman et al., 1979; Glisson et al., 1980; Kelley, 1994, in press; Nice, 1983). Findings from the present study indicate that the period preceding the separation may be particularly challenging for mothers as well. Mothers anticipating deployment reported that the parenting role was more stressful and that their children were more difficult. Several factors may have accounted for these findings. Crew members must often work long hours with little leave time in the weeks and months preceding deployment. It is likely that mothers had less time, energy, and patience for the parenting role. For mothers about to deploy, perceived concerns about the upcoming separation may have contributed to their reports of higher parenting stress. In contrast, for the reunion group, these perceived stresses had been dealt with satisfactorily in the mothers' absence and no longer influenced reported levels of stress. Also, it is likely that returning mothers may have been refreshed from a prolonged break in parenting responsibilities, which may have contributed to lower perceived parenting stress.

As for the finding that women in the predeployment group reported children to be more difficult, mothers may cognitively distort their children's behavior during this time--that is, everyday events (e.g., a child knocking over her milk at dinner) were perceived as more stressful. Moreover, some children experience difficulty coping with an upcoming deployment (e.g., Mitchum, 1991). A recent study demonstrated increased internalizing and externalizing behavior in children prior to deployment, which subsided with the father's return (Kelley, in press). Thus, mothers' predeployment reports that children were more demanding may accurately reflect the behavioral changes some children experience. It is also possible that everyday events may be perceived as less stressful than usual among women who had been reunited with their families.

Although few differences in mothers' parenting attitudes and behavior were observed, mothers anticipating deployment reported more sensitivity to their children. Because predeployment may be an especially difficult time for children (e.g., Kelley, in press), increased openness to children is important. Increased sensitivity is likely to influence children's ability to cope positively with deployment. This also appears significant because higher levels of parenting stress reported by mothers who are anticipating deployment did not appear to affect adversely parenting attitudes and behavior.

Similar to previous research examining traditional two-parent Navy families ( Eastman et al., 1990), family functioning was not significantly different before and after deployment. That is, the ability of families to maintain previous patterns of cohesiveness and organization did not appear diminished by a separation. Single parents reported lower levels of family functioning and more concerns about separating from their children. Clearly, more continuity in caregivers occurs when married women separate from their families. Although differences in perceptions of family functioning and separation anxiety were noted, differences in parenting attitudes and behavior were not observed between single and married mothers. Parenting attitudes and behavior may be especially important for children's development. Nevertheless, these findings indicate that it is especially critical that additional research examine the effects of Navy deployment on single parents and their children.

As for the more general implications of these findings for understanding the effects of deployment on mothers, women expecting to deploy in the near future should anticipate higher levels of parenting stress. Longitudinal studies are needed to address this issue; however, the increased stress reported by women may diminish during reunion. Also, these findings indicate that few women should experience clinical levels of parenting stress. Results indicate that parenting attitudes and behavior and family functioning are fairly stable over the deployment cycle. Single women, however, may be expected to have lower levels of family functioning and more concerns about separating from their children. How these differences are related to child outcomes is unknown.

There are several limitations of this research. Children of mothers in the reunion group were older than those of mothers in the predeployment group. Although analyses were statistically adjusted, it is difficult to determine how this difference influenced the measures examined. In conjunction with this problem, the predeployment ship reported fewer long-term deployments than the reunion ships. Because the predeployment ship rarely deployed, these women may have been especially concerned about the upcoming deployment.

Another limitation of the study is the lack of a nondeploying sample. The scores of a nondeploying sample may not differ from those of mothers facing separation. If this were the case, the lower stress of the reunited group could represent relief that their children weathered the separation and mothers' levels of stress might regress toward the steady-state mean with time. Examination of nondeploying samples and a population of women in the military but not presently assigned to ships is necessary to further our understanding of these issues.

This study undoubtedly raises more questions than it answers. How are children affected when the mother (or both parents) deploys? Do family responsibilities shift to the at-home spouse or other caregiver temporarily or permanently? Relations between retention and deployment in single and married mothers must be addressed as well. Nevertheless, this study provides an initial step toward an understanding of the effects of separation on deploying mothers and their families.

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and are not to be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Department of Defense.

We are grateful to the captains who provided insight into deployment from their experiences deploying with male and female sailors, to the administrative staffs who facilitated data collection, and to the many respondents from the U.S. Navy Atlantic Submarine Fleet. We thank J. D. Ball, Glynn D. Coates, Albert S. Glickman, and Patricia J. Thomas; the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article; and Kathy Moriarty for her help in data collection.

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