Some instructors will require you to submit a formal outline with your research paper. These instructors understand that an outline serves as a preview tool that allows them to grasp your thesis and organization at a glance. It explains the scope and direction of your paper as well.
Whether or not you're required to submit an outline with your final paper, making an outline is a superb way to help you construct and classify your ideas. In addition, an outline serves as a final check that your paper is unified and coherent. It helps you see where you need to revise and edit your writing, too.
The purpose of an outline is to organize the material you're going to use to prove your thesis. If your information isn't arranged in a logical fashion, your reader won't be able to understand your point.

How to Create an Outline

While outlining is not difficult, it can be challenging to get started. The following suggestions can make the task easier.
1.   First, arrange your notes in a logical order that you can follow as you write. If you're having difficulty seeing an order, look for clues in the sequence of your ideas. You can make a diagram, such as a flowchart, to help you visualize the best order to use.
2.   Jot down major headings.
3.   Sort the material to fit under the headings. Revise the headings, order, or both, as necessary.
4.   Look for relationships among ideas and group them as subtopics.
5.   Try to avoid long lists of subtopics. Consider combining these into related ideas. In nearly all cases, your paper will be better for having linked related ideas.
6.   If you can't decide where to put something, put it in two or more places in the outline. As you write, you can decide which place is the most appropriate.
7.   If you're not sure that an idea fits, write yourself a reminder to see where it belongs after you've written your first draft.
8.   If an important idea doesn't fit, write a new outline with a place for it. If it's important, it belongs in the paper.
9.   Accept your outline as a working draft. Revise and edit as you proceed.
10. After you finish your outline, let it sit for a few days. Then look back at it and see what ideas don't seem to fit, which points need to be expanded, and so on. No matter how carefully you construct your outline, it will inevitably change. Don't be discouraged by these changes; they are part of the writing process.

Form of an Outline

Outlines are written in a specific form, observing specific rules. The following section shows this format.
Model
Thesis statement Write your thesis statement here.
I.   Major topics or paragraphs are indicated by Roman numerals.
These are made by using the capitals l,V, or X on your
keyboard.
A.   Subheads are indicated by capital letters.
1.   Details are indicated by numbers, followed by a period.
a.   More specific details are indicated with lower-case
letters.
b.   These are written a, b, c, and so forth.
2.   Begin each entry with a capital letter.
B.   You can have as many entries as you like, but there must be
at least two in each category.
1.   You cannot have a I without a II.
2.   You cannot have an A without a B.
3.   You cannot have a I without a 2.
4.   You cannot have a lower case a without a lower case b.
II.   Entries should be in parallel order.

A.   Entries may be word entries.
B.   Entries may be phrase entries.
C.   Entries may be sentence entries.
For sample completed outlines, see the model research papers at the end of this guidebook.

Types of Outlines

There are several types of outlines, two of which are discussed below: jotted outlines and working outlines.

JOTTED OUTLINE

A jotted outline is a sketch of an outline, a list of the major points you want to cover. A jotted outline is a useful way to organize your thoughts because you can see what you're including at a glance. Here's a model of a jotted outline:
Model
Thesis: Since cigarette smoking creates many problems for the general public, it should be outlawed in all public places.
I.   Harms health
A.   Lung disease
B.   Circulatory disease
II.   Causes safety problems
A.   Destroys property
B.   Causes fires
III.   Sanitation problems
A.   Soils the possessions
B.   Causes unpleasant odors
IV.   Conclusion

WORKING OUTLINE

A working outline, in contrast, is more fully fleshed out than a jotted outline. Expanded and divided into topics and subtopics, it helps you create a map as you draft your research paper. An effective working outline has the following parts:
1.   Introduction
2.   Thesis
3.   Major topics and subtopics
4.   Major transitions
5.   Conclusion
Usually, the entries are written as sentences. Here's a model of a working outline, expanded from the previous jotted outline. Note that the entries are written as complete sentences.
Model
Thesis: Since cigarette smoking creates many problems for the general public, it should be outlawed in all public places. I. Cigarette smoke harms the health of the public.
A. Cigarette smoke may lead to serious diseases in nonsmokers. I. It leads to lung disease.
a.   It causes cancer.
b.   It causes emphysema.
2. It leads to circulatory disease in nonsmokers.
a.   It causes strokes.
b.   It causes heart disease.
B. Cigarette smoke worsens other less serious health conditions.
1.   It aggravates allergies in nonsmokers.
2.   It causes pulmonary infections to become chronic.
3.   It can lead to chronic headache.
II.   Cigarette smoking causes safety problems.
A.   Burning ash may destroy property.
B.   Burning cigarettes may cause serious fires.
III.   Cigarette smoke leads to sanitation problems.
A.   Ash and tar soil the possessions of others.
B.   Ash and tar cause unpleasant odors and fog the air.
IV Conclusions
A.   Cigarette smoking injures people's health and so should be banned in all public places.
B.   Cigarette smoking damages property and so should be banned in all public places.
Warning!
In general, a standard high school or college research paper should have no more than four or five main points. This means you shouldn't have more than four or five Roman numerals in your outline. If you have too many ideas, your paper will either be too long or more likely, vague and overly general.

Reading for Research Paper

Reading for Research

Now that you've gathered all your sources (or the vast majority of them), it's time to take notes on the relevant material. "Relevant" is the keyword here. How can you tell what you'll need for your paper and what will end up in the scrap heap?
In most cases you won't be able to tell what's going to make the cut and what won't. As a result, you'll probably end up taking far more notes than you need. Don't worry, nearly all researchers end up with extra notes. The deeper you dig into your subject, however, the more perceptive you'll become about what you need to prove your point most convincingly. Here are some guidelines to help you get started:
•   Before you start reading, arrange your sources according to difficulty. Read the general, introductory sources first. Use these to lay the foundation for the more specialized and technical material you'll need.
•   Look for facts, expert opinions, explanations, and examples that illustrate ideas.
•   Note any controversies swirling around your topic. Pay close attention to both sides of the issue: it's a great way to test the validity of your thesis.
•   Read in chunks. Finish an entire paragraph, page, or chapter before you stop to take notes. This will help you get the entire picture so you can pounce on the juicy bits of information.
Taking Notes
No one can remember all the material they read, or keep Expert A's opinion straight from Expert B's opinion. That's why you need to take notes.

For very brief research papers, you can usually gather Information without taking notes. In these cases, photocopy the sources, highlight key points, jot ideas in the margins, and start drafting. But with longer, more complex research papers, you'll have to make note cards to handle the flow of information efficiently. Figure on making note cards with any research paper more than a page or two long.

CARD SIZE

Many writers take notes on 4 x 6 index cards. This size is ideal. You don't want cards so small that you can't fit anything on them or cards so large that you'll end up wasting most of the space.
Increasingly, however, writers have been adapting this same method to computer technology. It's very easy to do and can save you a great deal of time when it comes to drafting. Adjust your margins to make a template for a "Notes" file by creating 4 x 6-sized boxes. You can print and cut the cards as you go along. As always, when you are working on a computer, back up all your files on an external storage system. You will also want to print out hard copies as a backup.

OVERALL GUIDELINES

Regardless of how you choose to take notes, the overall techniques remain the same.
•   Label each card with a subtopic, in the top right- or left-hand corner.
•   Include a reference citation showing the source of the information. Place this in the bottom right- or left-hand corner.
•   Be sure to include a page number, if the source is print.
•   Write one piece of information per card.
•   Keep the note short. If you write too much, you'll be right back where you started—trying to separate the essential information from the nonessential information.
•   Be sure to mark direct quotes with quotation marks. This can help you avoid plagiarism later.
•   Add any personal comments you think are necessary. This will help you remember how you intend to use the note in your research paper.

Check and double-check your notes. Be sure you've spelled all names right and copied dates correctly. Check that you've spelled the easy words correctly, too; many errors creep in because writers overlook the obvious words.

Note-Taking Methods
There are three main ways to take notes: direct quotations, summarizing, and paraphrasing. Each is explained below in detail.

TAKING DIRECT QUOTATIONS

    A direct quotation is word for word; you copy the material exactly as it appears in the source. If there is an error in the source, you even copy that, writing (sic) next to the mistake.
•   Show that a note is a direct quotation by surrounding it by quotation marks ("").
•   In general, quote briefly when you take notes. Remember that long quotations are difficult to integrate into your paper. Besides, readers often find long quotations hard to follow and boring to read.
•   What should you quote?
•   Quote key points. These are passages that sum up the main idea in a pithy way.
•   Quote subtle ideas. Look for passages whose meaning would be watered down or lost if you summarized or paraphrased them.
•   Quote expert opinions. They carry weight in your paper and make it persuasive.
•   Quote powerful writing. If the passage is memorable or famous, it will give your research paper authority.

Example:

Subtopic: Nez Perce surrender
"It is cold, and we have no blankets; the little children are freezing to death. My people, some of them, have run away to the hills, and have no blankets, no food. No one knows where they are-perhaps freezing to death. I want to have time to look for my children, to see how many of them I can find. Maybe I shall find them among the dead. Hear me, my chiefs! I am tired; my heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands I will fight no more forever."
Comments: Very moving, emotional speech. Shows tragic consequences of displacement of Native Americans.
Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History, p. 108

Summarizing

A summary is a smaller version of the original, reducing the passage to its essential meaning. Be sure to summarize carefully so you don't distort the meaning of the original passage. What should you summarize?
•   Commentaries
•   Explanations
•   Evaluations
•   Background information
•   A writer's line of thinking or argument
Example:
Original
"Now, why am I opposed to capital punishment? It is too horrible a thing for the state to undertake. We are told by my friend, 'Oh, the killer does it; why shouldn't the state?' I would hate to live in a state that I didn't think was better than a murderer.
But I told you the real reason. The people of a state kill a man because he killed someone else—that is all—without the slightest logic, without the slightest application to life, simply from anger, nothing else!
the hearts of men have softened they have gradually gotten rid of brutal punishment, because I believe it will only by [be] a few years until it will be banished forever from every civilized country—even New York— because I believe that it has no effect whatever to stop murder"

Summary

Subtopic: Clarence Darrow against capital punishment
Rage and a desire for retribution are not sufficient justification for capital punishment. It is a cruel, inhuman, and uncivilized form of punishment. Further, capital punishment does nothing to deter crime. For these reasons, he believes capital punishment will soon be eliminated, even in New York.
Comments: Original speech has an ironic, sarcastic tone.
Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History, p. 108
PARAPHRASING
A paraphrase is a restatement of the writer's original words. It often includes examples and explanations from the original quotation. A paraphrase may be longer than the original, shorter than the original, or the same length.
Paraphrasing is the most difficult form of note taking. As a result, it is where beginning writers are most likely to commit plagiarism—using someone else's words as their own. You can avoid this by quoting words you copy directly and being very sure that you do indeed restate the material in your own words.
You should paraphrase...
•   material that readers might otherwise misunderstand.
•   information that is important but too long to include in the original form.
Example:
Original
"In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from that responsibility—I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it—and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.
And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country"

PHARAPHRASE

Topic: Social responsibility (JFK Inauguration speech)
Now, America faces great peril. As a result, America is now faced with the challenge of standing up for liberty. Not many countries have ever been in this position. Kennedy welcomes this challenge because he believes his actions (and America's valiant response) can stand as a beacon for the rest of the world to follow.
"And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country."
Comments: A very famous and stirring speech.
Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History, p. 108

Warning!
Don't rely too heavily on any one source—no matter how good it looks. It's fairly common to find one source that seems to say it all, and just the way you like. But if you take too much from one source, you'll end up doing a book report, not a research paper. And worst-case scenario: what happens if the source turns out to be invalid or dated? Your paper will be a disaster.

Now it's time to organize your research into a logical whole. Outlines are the most logical and easy way to accomplish this.

Evaluating Internet Sources

A Special Note on Evaluating Internet Sources

Be especially careful when you evaluate Web sites because they can be difficult to authenticate and validate. Unlike most print resources such as magazines and journals that go through a filtering process (e.g., editing, peer review), information on the web is mostly unfiltered. What does this mean for you? Here's the scoop: using and citing information found on Web sites is a little like swimming on a beach without a lifeguard.
For instance, Web sites may be published anonymously. This means you can't evaluate the writer or writers. Also, the sites can be updated and revised without notification.
Further, they may vanish without warning. This makes it difficult to evaluate their reliability.
HEADER, BODY, AND FOOTER
Once you've determined that you are dealing with an online source, check the web document for its three main elements: header, body, and footer. Within each of these pieces, you should be able to determine the following vital elements for evaluating information:
1. Author or contact person (usually located in the footer) As you evaluate the selection, ask yourself:
•   Who is the author of the piece?
•   Is the author the original creator of the information?
•   Does the author list his or her occupation, years of experience, position, or education?
•   With this information-or lack of it-do you feel this person is qualified to write on the given topic?
•   Where does the online source come from? Knowing the source of a site can help you evaluate its purpose and potential bias.

You can often find clues to the origin of an online source in its address. Look for the suffix to identify the source. Here are the common URL suffixes you'll encounter:

Common URI Suffixes'
*Suffix*	*Meaning*
com	commercial (business or company)
edu	education (academic site)
gov	government
int	international organization
mil	military organization
net	Internet administration
org	other organizations, including nonprofit,
	nonacademic, and nongovernmental groups
sci	special knowledge newsgroup

A .com is going to have a different slant from a university, for example. It's likely that the .com will want to sell you a product or a service (since it is a business), while the university is probably seeking to disseminate knowledge. As a result, knowing the source of the site can help you evaluate its purpose and potential bias.
2. Link to local home page (usually located either in header or footer) and institution (usually located in either header or footer). As you evaluate the selection, ask yourself:
•    What institution (Like company, government, or university) or Internet provider supports this information?
•    If it is a commercial Internet provider, does the author appear to have any affiliation with a larger institution?
•    If it is an institution, is it a national institution?
•    Does the institution appear to filter the information appearing under its name?
•    Does the author's affiliation with this particular institution appear to bias the information?
•   When was the information created or last updated?
4.    Intended audience (determined by examining the body)
5.    Purpose of the information, that is, does it inform, explain, or persuade (determined by examining the body)
6.    Access, that is, how did you find the site? Was it linked to a reputable site? If you found the site through a search engine, that only means that the site has the words in the topic you are researching prominently placed or used with great frequency. If you found the site by browsing through a subject directory, that may mean only that someone at that site registered it with that directory. If you found it through an advertisement, it is not likely to be reliable.
Given all the information you determined from above, is this piece of information appropriate for your topic? If yes, explain your decision and any reservations you would tell someone else using this information.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Below are some additional links for evaluating web material.
•    Critical Evaluation of Resources. Margaret Phillips, UC Berkeley Library. Suggestions for evaluating a range of resources, including books, articles, and Web sites. Covers suitability, authority, other indicators, reference sources, and provides links.
•    Evaluate Web Resources. Detailed checklist under: Introduction, Source, Site/Article, Content, Structure/ Navigation, Links, Site Integrity/Access.
•    Evaluating Credibility of Information on the Internet. Ronald B. Standler.
•    Evaluating Information found on the Internet. Elizabeth Kirk, Johns Hopkins University.
•    Evaluating Information: Some questions to help you judge Online Information. Jacob Hespeler Library.
•   Thinking Critically about World Wide Web Resources. Esther Grassian, UCLA College Library.
In summary, all sources are not equally valid. Be sure to carefully and completely evaluate every source you find before you decide whether to use it in your research paper. Weak or inaccurate sources can seriously damage your credibility as a writer and thinker.

Loaded terms

Suspect sources may use "loaded terms" to make their point. A term becomes "loaded" when it is asked to carry more emotional weight than its context can legitimately support. As a result, it becomes slanted or biased. These sources are often not reliable.
Words with strong connotations (emotional responses) often show bias. For example, a writer may refer to the governor's "regime" rather than "administration." "Regime" is a loaded term because it is used to describe oppressive military dictatorships.
While loaded terms are most often used in political writing and speech, they can appear in any source. That's why it's important to read critically.

MISREPRESENTATION

This type of bias takes many forms. First, a writer or speaker can lie outright. Or, a writer may be more subtle, inventing false data or "facts." In addition, dishonest writers often twist what their opponents have said. To misrepresent this way, they use oversimplification. A complex argument can be reduced to ridicule in a slogan or an important element of an argument can be skipped over.
How can you protect yourself from being misled by this type of bias? Here are some issues to consider as you evaluate a text for misrepresentation:

•    Is someone quoted out of context?
•    Are facts or statistics cited in a vacuum?
•    Does the quotation reflect the overall content of the source or does it merely reflect a minor detail?
•    Has key information been omitted?

Appropriateness

Even if a source does pass the first two tests and proves to be of high quality and free from bias, it does not necessarily mean that the source belongs to your research paper. For a source to make the final cut, it has to fit with your audience, purpose, and tone. It must be appropriate to your paper. How can you decide if a source is suitable for inclusion in your research paper? Try these suggestions:
•    Do you understand the material in the source?
•    If the source is too technical for you to grasp fully, you might not use it correctly in your paper.
•    Is the source written at a level appropriate to your readers?
•    Does this source have the information you need?
•    Does the source suit your purposes in this research paper?

Bogus Claims

BOGUS CLAIMS

A claim can be considered bogus or false, when the speaker promises more than he or she can deliver. For example, the speaker may speak vaguely of "many important experiments," or "recent clinical studies" to prove a point. The point may indeed have value, but the studies the speaker cites as proof are too fuzzy to have merit. Well-educated peo¬ple are rightly skeptical about promises from strangers.
Effective research sources use specific support-not just vague references to unidentified studies and sources. You can't evaluate "many important experiments" or "recent clinical studies" unless you know how they were undertaken, by whom, and where the results were published.
Also be on the lookout for sources that refer to "statistics that show...." Statistics can be very useful in proving a point, but they can also be misleading-especially if you don't have the numbers to evaluate their validity.
Ask yourself:
• Does the statistic raise any unanswered questions?
• Has the source of the statistics been revealed?
"Well-known" information is another form a bogus claim can take. Be wary of sources that tell you that "Everybody knows that..." or "It is a well-known fact that...." If the fact is so "well known," why is the writer bothering to cite it as support? Very likely, it's the best support the writer can muster-which doesn't speak well for the validity of the source or writer.

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